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Which of the following services do not encrypt its traffic by default?
Encryption ensures confidentiality and integrity of network traffic. Analyzing defaults:
A . DNS (Domain Name System):
Default: Unencrypted (UDP/TCP 53), per RFC 1035. Queries/responses (e.g., ''google.com 142.250.190.14'') are plaintext.
Modern Options: DNS over HTTPS (DoH, TCP 443) or DNS over TLS (DoT, TCP 853) encrypt, but aren't default in most systems (e.g., pre-2020 Windows).
B . SSH (Secure Shell):
Default: Encrypted (TCP 22), per RFC 4251. Uses asymmetric (e.g., RSA) and symmetric (e.g., AES) crypto for all sessions.
C . FTPS (FTP Secure):
Default: Encrypted (TCP 21 control, dynamic data ports). Extends FTP with SSL/TLS (e.g., RFC 4217), securing file transfers.
Technical Details:
DNS: Plaintext exposes queries to eavesdropping (e.g., ISP snooping) or spoofing (e.g., cache poisoning).
SSH/FTPS: Encryption is baked into their standards; disabling it requires explicit misconfiguration.
Security Implications: Unencrypted DNS risks privacy and integrity (e.g., Kaminsky attack). CNSP likely pushes DoH/DoT adoption.
Why other options are incorrect:
B, C: Encrypt by default.
D: False, as only DNS lacks default encryption.
Real-World Context: The 2013 Snowden leaks exposed DNS monitoring; DoH uptake (e.g., Cloudflare 1.1.1.1) counters this.
Where are the password hashes stored in the Linux file system?
In Linux, password hashes are stored in a secure file to protect user authentication data. The evolution of Linux security practices moved password storage from plaintext or weakly protected files to a more secure location.
Why C is correct: The /etc/shadow file is the standard location for storing password hashes in modern Linux systems. This file is readable only by the root user, enhancing security by restricting access. It contains encrypted password hashes (typically using algorithms like SHA-512), along with user details such as password expiration policies. CNSP documentation on Linux security emphasizes /etc/shadow as the authoritative source for password hashes, replacing older methods.
Why other options are incorrect:
A . /etc/passwd: Historically, /etc/passwd stored passwords in plaintext or weakly hashed forms (e.g., using DES), but modern systems use it only for user account information (e.g., UID, GID, home directory) and reference /etc/shadow for hashes.
B . /etc/password: This is not a valid file in the Linux file system; it appears to be a typographical error or misunderstanding, with no recognized role in password storage.
D . /usr/bin/shadow: /usr/bin contains executable binaries, not configuration or data files like password hashes. /etc/shadow is the correct path.
The application is showing a TLS error message as a result of a website administrator failing to timely renew the TLS certificate. But upon deeper analysis, it appears that the problem is brought on by the expiration of the TLS certificate. Which of the following statements is correct?
TLS (Transport Layer Security) secures communication (e.g., HTTPS) using certificates, per RFC 8446. A certificate includes:
Validity Period: Start and end dates (e.g., 'Not After: March 8, 2025').
Purpose: Authenticates the server and encrypts the session.
Scenario: An expired TLS certificate (e.g., past 'Not After' date). Modern browsers (e.g., Chrome, Firefox) validate certificates during the handshake:
ClientHello: Browser initiates TLS.
ServerHello: Server sends its certificate.
Validation: Browser checks expiration, CA trust, etc.
If expired, browsers reject the handshake, displaying errors (e.g., 'NET::ERR_CERT_DATE_INVALID'). No session key is negotiated, and communication doesn't proceed over TLS. Users may bypass warnings (e.g., 'Advanced > Proceed'), but this is unencrypted or uses a fallback (not standard TLS), breaking security guarantees.
Security Implications: Expired certificates expose sites to MITM attacks, as trust is lost. CNSP likely emphasizes certificate management (e.g., automation with Let's Encrypt) to avoid this.
Why other options are incorrect:
B . The communication is still over TLS: False; an expired certificate halts the TLS handshake in compliant browsers. Legacy systems might negotiate insecurely, but this isn't 'TLS' per standards.
Real-World Context: The 2019 Equifax breach partially stemmed from expired certificates missing vulnerabilities.
What will be the subnet mask for 192.168.0.1/18?
An IP address with a /18 prefix (CIDR notation) indicates 18 network bits in the subnet mask, leaving 14 host bits (32 total bits - 18). For IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.0.1):
Binary Mask: First 18 bits are 1s, rest 0s.
1st octet: 11111111 (255)
2nd octet: 11111111 (255)
3rd octet: 11000000 (192)
4th octet: 00000000 (0)
Decimal: 255.255.192.0
Calculation:
Bits: /18 = 2^14 hosts (16,384), minus 2 (network/broadcast) = 16,382 usable.
Range: 192.168.0.0--192.168.63.255 (3rd octet: 0--63, as 192 = 11000000 covers 6 bits).
Technical Details:
Subnet masks align on octet boundaries or mid-octet (e.g., 192 = 2^7 + 2^6).
Contrast: /24 = 255.255.255.0 (256 hosts), /16 = 255.255.0.0 (65,536 hosts).
Security Implications: Larger subnets (e.g., /18) increase broadcast domains, risking amplification attacks. CNSP likely teaches subnetting for segmentation (e.g., VLANs).
Why other options are incorrect:
A . 255.255.255.0: /24 (8 host bits), not /18.
B . 255.225.225.0: Invalid mask (225 = 11100001, non-contiguous 1s).
D . 255.225.192.0: Invalid (225 breaks binary sequence).
Real-World Context: Subnetting 192.168.0.0/18 isolates departments in enterprise networks.
Which of the following is not a DDoS attack?
DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attacks aim to overwhelm a target's resources with excessive traffic, disrupting availability, whereas other attack types target different goals.
Why D is correct: Brute force attacks focus on guessing credentials (e.g., passwords) to gain unauthorized access, not on denying service. CNSP classifies it as an authentication attack, not a DDoS method.
Why other options are incorrect:
A: SYN Flood exhausts TCP connection resources, a classic DDoS attack.
B: NTP Amplification leverages amplified responses to flood targets, a DDoS technique.
C: UDP Flood overwhelms a system with UDP packets, another DDoS method.
