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The volatility of commodity futures prices is affected by
All the choices list inputs into the determination of futures prices. Therefore volatility in any of them affects the volatility of futures prices. Of course, the largest contributor to the volatility is the volatility of the spot price of the underlying. Choice 'd' is the correct answer.
For a deep out-of-the-money option:
A deep out of the money option will not react much to the change in the price of the underlying. In fact, the more out of the money it is, the more unresponsive it will be to changes in the prices of the underlying. Therefore, its delta will approach zero. Since delta is zero, gamma, which measures the rate of change in the delta, will also be zero as delta is unchanging. Therefore Choice 'a' is the correct answer.
For a portfolio of equally weighted uncorrelated assets, which of the following is FALSE:
All the statements given are true, except that standard deviations cannot be averaged to get the portfolio standard deviation unless the assets are perfectly positively correlated. Therefore Choice 'd' is the false statement, and the correct answer.
For a portfolio of uncorrelated assets, ie correlations being equal to zero, variances can be added together to get portfolio variance. Also, regardless of correlations, portfolio returns are always the weighted average of asset returns, and just averages will do in this case as the portfolio is said to be equally weighted across the assets. A correlation of zero produces a risk level less than that possible with positive correlations.
Which of the following will have the effect of increasing the duration of a bond, all else remaining equal:
1. Increase in bond coupon
II. Increase in bond yield
III. Decrease in coupon frequency
IV. Increase in bond maturity
An increase in coupon brings the 'average' cash flows closer, thereby decreasing duration. The higher the coupon, the lower the duration.
An increase in yield discounts the cash flows that are further away more than it does the closer cash flows, so an increase in yield decreases duration.
An increase in coupon frequency brings the bond's cash flows closer, thereby decreasing duration. Decreasing the coupon frequency has the opposite effect.
An increase in maturity pushes the payments further out, thereby increasing duration.
An investor enters into a 4 year interest rate swap with a bank, agreeing to pay a fixed rate of 4% on a notional of $100m in return for receiving LIBOR. What is the value of the swap to the investor two years hence, immediately after the net interest payments are exchanged? Assume the 2 year swap rate is 5%, and the yield curve is also flat at 5%
The swap can be valued by using the new swap rate of 5%. The investor is paying fixed and receiving LIBOR, and can effectively get out of his position by entering into a swap to receive 5% and pay LIBOR. This will leave him/her with a net cash flow of 1% for two years, ie $1m for 2 years that can be discounted to the present using the rates provided, ie =(1/1.05 + 1/(1.05^2)) = $1,859,410.
Detailed explanation:
An Interest Rate Swap exchanges fixed interest flows for floating rate flows. The floating rate leg is tied to some reference rate, such as LIBOR. The parties exchange net cash flows periodically. Conceptually, an interest rate swap is the combination of a fixed coupon bond and a floating rate note. The party receiving the fixed rate is long the fixed coupon bond and short the FRN, and the party receiving the floating rate is long the FRN and short the fixed coupon bond.
An interest rate swap can be valued as the difference between the two hypothetical bonds. FRNs sell for par at issue time as they pay whatever the current rate is, subject to periodic resets. Therefore immediately after a payment is made on a swap, the value of the FRN component is equal to its par value. The bond can be valued by discounting its cash flows. The difference between the two represents the value of the swap. When the swap is entered into, the fixed rate leg is set in such a way that the value of the hypothetical bond is equal to that of the FRN, and the swap is valued at zero. The rate at which the fixed rate leg is set is called the swap rate. Over its life, market rates change and the value of the fixed coupon bond equivalent in our swap diverges from par (whereas the FRN stays at par - at least right after payments are exchanged and the new floating rate is set for the next period). Thus the swap acquires a non-zero value.
There are two ways to value a swap. If interest rates for the future are known, the bond and the FRN can be valued and their difference will be equal to the value of the swap. Sometimes, the current swap rates are known. In such a case, the swap can be valued by imagining entering into an opposite swap at the new swap rate, which will leave a residual fixed cash flow for the remaining life of the swap. This residual cash flow can be valued and that represents the value of the swap. For example, if a 4 year swap was entered into exchanging an annual fixed 5% payment on a notional of $100m for a floating payment equal to LIBOR, and at the end of year 1 the swap rate is 6%, then the party paying fixed can choose to enter into a new swap to receive 6% and pay LIBOR. All cash flows between the old and the new swap will offset each other except a net receipt of 1% for the next 3 years. This cash flow can be valued using the current yield curve and represents the value of the swap.
